[🇧🇩] Telecommunication Industry in Bangladesh

[Saif]

Telecom operators seek priority fuel supply to avoid disruptions

Mobile telecom operators have urged the government to ensure priority fuel supply and stable electricity for telecom infrastructure, warning that prolonged shortages could disrupt nationwide connectivity and affect the digital economy. The Association of Mobile Telecom Operators of Bangladesh (AMT

thefinancialexpress.com.bd

Telecom operators seek priority fuel supply to avoid disruptions

UNB
Published :
Apr 02, 2026 16:54
Updated :
Apr 02, 2026 18:06

Mobile telecom operators have urged the government to ensure priority fuel supply and stable electricity for telecom infrastructure, warning that prolonged shortages could disrupt nationwide connectivity and affect the digital economy.

The Association of Mobile Telecom Operators of Bangladesh (AMTOB) made the call in a press release on Thursday, citing growing operational challenges amid the emerging global fuel crisis and “power disruptions.”

According to the operators, escalating geopolitical tensions have triggered concerns over fuel availability, posing risks to uninterrupted telecom services.

Although the government has responded positively and instructed relevant authorities to extend support, the situation on the ground has yet to fully reflect those directives, they said.

The mobile network operators (MNOs) alerted the government regarding foreseeable disruptions to seamless telecom operations.

At the same time, recent storms have led to a noticeable increase in power outages in areas under Bangladesh Rural Electrification Board, with restoration times in many areas becoming prolonged, they said, adding that a similar trend is expected during the rainy season, further increasing operational vulnerability for telecom networks.

In this context, the industry has sought, on a urgent basis, a comprehensive support framework that includes priority and uninterrupted fuel supply for core network locations, assured fuel availability for Base Transceiver Station (BTS) sites operated by the four mobile operators and four tower companies, dedicated fuel allocation for maintenance transport, reduced load shedding at critical telecom facilities and the fastest possible restoration of power following storms and weather-related disruptions.

Bangladesh’s telecom network infrastructure comprises approximately 45,000 towers, multiple operators-owned data centres, Network Operations Centres (NOCs) and many other critical network components covering nearly 100% of the country’s geographical area and providing essential telecommunication services to 185 million people.

All the MNO network elements, including radio access sites, switching nodes, core network platforms, data centres, and NOCs, require a stable, reliable, and uninterrupted electricity supply on a 24/7 basis to maintain service continuity, network quality, and national connectivity.

Despite its scale and critical importance, the network remains heavily dependent on diesel and petrol-powered generators, particularly during power outages, load shedding, and natural disasters. In addition to the ongoing global energy crisis, Bangladesh is also prone to major cyclones and floods, which lead to fuel and energy shortages. Therefore, any disruption to fuel availability poses a serious risk to uninterrupted nationwide connectivity.

The MNOs urgently call on the government to take necessary measures to ensure adequate fuel and electricity supply to maintain uninterrupted telecom operations, safeguard nationwide network availability, and provide stable, continuous communication services for the people of Bangladesh.​

 

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Energy crisis: Generator-dependent mobile networks under pressure from power shortages

The ongoing load-shedding and power crisis in the country are now beginning to affect mobile network infrastructure. Due to the irregular supply from the national grid, network operations have become almost entirely dependent on generators. As a result, daily fuel demand has surged to nearly...

en.prothomalo.com

Energy crisis: Generator-dependent mobile networks under pressure from power shortages

Operators fear that further disruptions in electricity and fuel supply will initially weaken network coverage in rural and marginal areas. This could subsequently lead to call drops, data slowdowns, and partial network outages in urban areas as well.

Syed Rifat Moslem
Dhaka
Published: 20 Apr 2026, 22: 00

Mobile phone tower Reuters file photo

The ongoing load-shedding and power crisis in the country are now beginning to affect mobile network infrastructure. Due to the irregular supply from the national grid, network operations have become almost entirely dependent on generators. As a result, daily fuel demand has surged to nearly 100,000 litres.

According to data from mobile operators, approximately 52,425 litres of diesel and 19,859 litres of octane are being consumed each day merely to keep mobile base transceiver stations (BTS) operational.

In addition, a further 27,196 litres of diesel are required to maintain data centres and switching infrastructure, they said.

However, operators warn that if adequate fuel supplies are not ensured amid the fuel crisis triggered by the Iran war, its impact could rapidly spread across the mobile network.

An analysis of operator data shows that data centres located across different regions of the country require around 4 megawatts of electricity daily. In the absence of grid power, maintaining these facilities requires between 500 and 600 litres of fuel per hour.

Operator authorities report that the data centres of Grameenphone, Robi, and Banglalink together consume an average of 27,196 litres of diesel daily—of which Grameenphone accounts for 11,184 litres, Robi 9,732 litres, and Banglalink 8,200 litres.

Operators do have backup systems but under the current circumstances, there are concerns about how long such backup can be sustained. It must be remembered that the data centre is the brain of the operator—if it goes down, the entire network goes down.
Lieutenant Colonel (retd.) Mohammad Zulfikar, Secretary General of AMTOB

According to the latest data from the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC), the country has more than 185 million mobile subscribers.

Operators fear that further disruptions in electricity and fuel supply will initially weaken network coverage in rural and marginal areas. This could subsequently lead to call drops, data slowdowns, and partial network outages in urban areas as well.

If generators cannot be run for extended periods, there is also a risk of complete network shutdowns in specific locations, they apprehended.

Lieutenant Colonel (retd.) Mohammad Zulfikar, Secretary General of the Association of Mobile Telecom Operators of Bangladesh (AMTOB), told Prothom Alo that any disruption or shutdown of operators’ data centres due to power or fuel shortages could quickly have widespread repercussions across the entire network.

“Operators do have backup systems,” he said, “but under the current circumstances, there are concerns about how long such backup can be sustained. It must be remembered that the data centre is the brain of the operator—if it goes down, the entire network goes down.”

Letter to BTRC

In this context, AMTOB sent an urgent letter to BTRC last Saturday. The letter states that during storms, many parts of the country are experiencing continuous load-shedding lasting five to eight hours a day. As a result, operators have become fully reliant on generators. If the electricity and fuel crisis persists, the country’s mobile network system could face the risk of a major disruption.

AMTOB also warned that any large-scale network disruption would affect emergency ambulance and fire service communications, banking and mobile financial services, government digital operations, and coordination among law enforcement agencies.

Highlighting logistical challenges alongside fuel shortages, the letter further notes that barriers imposed by law enforcement agencies during inter-district fuel transportation, coupled with the absence of direct supply from depots, have caused fuel reserves at many critical telecom sites to fall to alarming levels.

AMTOB also warned that any large-scale network disruption would affect emergency ambulance and fire service communications, banking and mobile financial services, government digital operations, and coordination among law enforcement agencies.

The letter recommends four urgent measures: ensuring uninterrupted electricity supply to core networks and data centres; prioritising power connections for BTS sites; enabling direct fuel supply at designated operator points; and issuing clear instructions to prevent obstruction of telecom fuel transportation.

BTRC Chairman Major General (retd.) Md Emdad ul Bari told Prothom Alo that telecommunications is an essential service. Efforts are being made in coordination with the ministries of Posts and Telecommunications, Information and Communication Technology, and Power and Energy to ensure that services are not disrupted under any circumstances.

However, he added that safeguards would also be in place to prevent misuse under the guise of priority access.

Follow the Google news channel to get Prothom Alo's latest news​

 

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Banglalink, SpaceX seek nod for satellite-to-mobile trial

Banglalink and Elon Musk’s SpaceX have jointly applied to the telecom regulator in Bangladesh to launch trials of telecom services through satellite, allowing users’ smartphones to connect directly to satellites through a mobile operator’s network.

www.thedailystar.net

Banglalink, SpaceX seek nod for satellite-to-mobile trial

Mahmudul Hasan

Banglalink and Elon Musk’s SpaceX have jointly applied to the telecom regulator in Bangladesh to launch trials of telecom services through satellite, allowing users’ smartphones to connect directly to satellites through a mobile operator’s network.

In a recent letter seen by The Daily Star, the companies sought approval from the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) for an initial 60-day test and trial period to integrate satellite connectivity into Banglalink’s network.

“This system will provide supplemental mobile connectivity using over 650 Starlink Low-Earth-Orbit (LEO) satellites, which initially will deliver SMS and, at a later stage, light-data capabilities to Banglalink subscribers, particularly during periods when terrestrial networks are damaged or unavailable,” the letter said.

It said the commercial arrangement will integrate Starlink Direct-to-Cell satellite connectivity into Banglalink’s mobile network in Bangladesh.

The letter describes the initiative as a first-of-its-kind partnership in Bangladesh aimed at expanding connectivity, particularly in disaster-prone and remote areas where conventional terrestrial networks are unavailable.

The companies said the proposed service would help address long-standing coverage gaps.

This development comes after Kaan Terzioglu, chief executive officer of Veon, told The Daily Star last month that the company aims to replicate the technology it is already using in Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

To prepare for a commercial rollout, Banglalink and SpaceX requested regulatory support.

The testing will use mobile frequencies authorised for Banglalink’s operations, specifically the 2110–2115 MHz downlink range and 1920–1925 MHz uplink range, where Banglalink is the sole authorised spectrum user.

The companies said the service would initially be offered as a supplementary service under Banglalink’s existing licence and would comply with regulatory obligations, including Know Your Customer (KYC) requirements.

“Subject to regulatory approval, the testing is expected to commence in April 2026 and will focus on integrating Banglalink’s terrestrial mobile service with Starlink’s Direct-to-Cell satellites in Bangladesh. No commercial service will be offered to Banglalink’s customers during the testing phase.”

Alongside the trial, the companies also urged the regulator to support necessary regulatory changes to enable satellite-based mobile services.

The trial demonstrations will take place at mutually agreed locations within Banglalink’s licensed service areas in Bangladesh and will operate within Banglalink’s authorised frequency ranges.

The companies highlighted the potential of satellite-to-mobile services to bridge the digital divide and ensure connectivity during emergencies.

They added that the system would allow users to connect via widely available LTE devices. LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a 4G mobile network technology that provides high-speed data for smartphones.

Citing global use cases, the companies said the system had already been deployed in emergency situations.

They also requested the commission to grant approval for the commercial launch immediately after the test and trial.

Md Emdad Ul Bari, chairman of the BTRC, said they are assessing the letter and that a decision will be taken after obtaining the government’s opinion on the matter.

Unlike traditional mobile networks that rely on ground-based towers, Starlink’s direct-to-cell technology uses satellites as cell towers in space. This allows ordinary mobile phones to connect directly, expanding coverage to areas with little or no ground infrastructure.

In a statement yesterday, Banglalink announced a collaboration with Starlink Mobile to introduce the satellite-to-mobile service.

Johan Buse, chief executive officer of Banglalink, said, “Connectivity is about care -- it matters most when it reaches people wherever they are. Some communities remain beyond the reach of traditional networks because of our unique geography.

“By providing satellite-enabled coverage with Starlink, we aim to bridge those gaps and ensure people can stay connected, even in the most remote parts of the country.”​

 

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Govt plans telecom overhaul

Bangladesh’s mobile and broadband internet services rank among the worst in the world despite a large subscriber base, and a connectivity-led reform plan is being prepared to address the challenge, Rehan Asad, the prime minister’s adviser on telecom and ICT, said yesterday.

www.thedailystar.net

Govt plans telecom overhaul

Says PM’s adviser

Star Business Report

Bangladesh’s mobile and broadband internet services rank among the worst in the world despite a large subscriber base, and a connectivity-led reform plan is being prepared to address the challenge, Rehan Asad, the prime minister’s adviser on telecom and ICT, said yesterday.

Speaking at a seminar titled “New Telecom Policy: Expectations of Entrepreneurs”, organised by the Telecom and Technology Reporters Network Bangladesh, he said the government sees better connectivity as the key to solving long-standing structural problems in the sector.

“Nothing is more important than connectivity for this government. And that connectivity means both mobile and broadband services. It is not either-or -- it is both,” he said.

Asad said Bangladesh is among the top 10 countries by mobile subscriptions, but service quality remains very poor.

“Even in South Asia, Nepal and Bhutan are ahead of us,” he said.

He added that broadband services are also weak. “In broadband, we are in an equally bad or worse position -- 141st out of 153 countries in terms of service quality,” he said.

“These are not my findings. They come from global reports by GSMA and the International Telecommunication Union,” he added.

He said the government plans to fix these problems by rapidly expanding mobile and broadband infrastructure.

“We want to connect 90 percent of the population with 5G and provide 100 Mbps internet to 90 percent of users,” he said.

He said the goal is to ensure consistent internet service across both urban and rural areas, so users no longer face uncertainty in accessing basic connectivity.

The second priority is to build a unified digital ecosystem through a nationwide digital identity system.

He explained that each citizen will receive a digital ID linked to a digital wallet that can connect with banking and mobile financial services.

The government is studying global models such as Singapore’s Singpass and Estonia’s digital system, with plans to begin rollout within the next 12 to 18 months.

The third priority is to turn Bangladesh into an AI-enabled economy, he said, adding that artificial intelligence will be introduced in education and industry.

The fourth priority is reforming the telecom tax system.

“When someone recharges Tk 100, they receive only Tk 62 worth of service. The remaining Tk 38 goes to the government,” he said.

“We want to examine the whole value chain so that a person can receive Tk 80 to Tk 90 worth of service.”

He added that Bangladesh is the third-largest collector of telecom taxes globally, which also affects affordability, including access to smartphones.

Asad said the reforms will require coordination between industry players and government agencies, and that discussions with stakeholders are already underway.

Not all problems will be solved immediately, he said, adding that the current work marks the start of a longer reform process.

Sumon Ahmed Sabir, deputy managing director of Fiber@Home, said at the event that policies and guidelines enacted by the interim government unfairly allowed foreign entities to obtain licences across multiple layers.

“The cross-layer empowerment of foreign entities could ultimately lead to ‘super-dominance’ in mobile infrastructure by one or two companies,” he said.

He also warned of risks to national security and data governance.

Some representatives of local companies at the event also alleged that the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) formulated policies and guidelines without adequate consultation with industry stakeholders.

Md Emdad Ul Bari, chairman of the BTRC, stated that their claims were unfounded.

BTRC had conducted extensive consultations with industry players, academia, and government bodies during the policy formulation process, he said.

Bari added that the primary objective of the regulator was to ensure that the policies serve the industry as a whole.

He also noted that the guidelines and policies are currently being reviewed again, in consultation with the newly elected government.​

 

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Bangladesh targets top-20 position in global telecom services: PM’s telecom adviser

Bangladesh plans to position itself among the world’s top 20 countries in telecom and technology services within the next five years through a holistic digital economy strategy focused on connectivity, affordable access, startup growth, electronics manufacturing and skilled human resources.

www.thedailystar.net

Bangladesh targets top-20 position in global telecom services: PM’s telecom adviser

Star Business Report

Bangladesh plans to position itself among the world’s top 20 countries in telecom and technology services within the next five years through a holistic digital economy strategy focused on connectivity, affordable access, startup growth, electronics manufacturing and skilled human resources.

The vision was outlined by Rehan Asad, the prime minister’s adviser on telecom and ICT, at a seminar titled “Telecom future: new government's vision” organised by the Telecom and Technology Reporters' Network Bangladesh (TRNB) at InterContinental Dhaka today.

Faqir Mahbub Anam, minister for telecom and ICT, and Md Emdad Ul Bari were also present at the programme.

“We are not only aiming to become a top-20 subscriber country, we want to become a top-20 service-quality country,” Rehan said, noting that Bangladesh already ranks among the top countries globally in terms of telecom subscribers but lags behind in service quality indicators.

According to different estimates, the telecom and ICT sector’s current contribution to Bangladesh’s GDP ranges from less than 1 percent to around 6 percent, but the figure could rise to 15 percent if the government develops a supportive ecosystem around the industry, he said.

“Yes, there will be challenges … But there is no reason why this sector cannot contribute 15 percent of GDP,” he said.

Rehan said that alongside network expansion, affordable devices and digital services are needed to ensure digital inclusion.

“We are talking about 4G and 5G, but if we do not focus on devices, then 4G and 5G mean nothing,” he said.

According to him, smartphone penetration in Bangladesh remains below 50 percent, while the cheapest smartphones still cost around Tk 10,000, making them unaffordable for many low-income users.

To address this, the government is working with local manufacturers, telecom operators, banks and mobile financial service providers to produce smartphones priced between Tk 5,000 and Tk 6,000 and introduce equal monthly instalment (EMI) facilities for consumers.

“If we can enable EMI, a farmer or rickshaw puller may be able to buy a smartphone through monthly payments,” he said.

The adviser also highlighted the need for stable and predictable policies to attract investment into the telecom and technology sectors.

“One of the biggest complaints from businesses is policy unpredictability. We want to provide a five-year roadmap for VAT, tax and customs policies so businesses can plan ahead,” he said.

He acknowledged concerns over the telecom sector’s high tax burden, saying operators face effective tax rates of up to 56 percent, significantly higher than the global average.

On spectrum policy, Rehan said the government’s priority is no longer limited to maximising revenue collection.

“Our priority is creating the ecosystem, the value chain and overall economic development,” he said.

The adviser also identified AI, cybersecurity, data centres and digital governance as key pillars of the government’s future technology strategy.

“Cybersecurity is absolutely critical,” he said, adding that both the public and private sectors would need to work together to improve the country’s cyber resilience.

He also drew comparisons with countries such as Vietnam and India, saying Bangladesh has the potential to become a major electronics manufacturing and export hub if it can ensure investment-friendly policies and support for entrepreneurs.

Rehan also said the government plans to strengthen the startup ecosystem through grants, policy support and financing facilities for young innovators and entrepreneurs.​

 

[Saif]

Teletalk receives new spectrum despite Tk 55b in outstanding dues

According to decisions taken at the BTRC’s latest commission meeting, regulators fixed the price of each megahertz of spectrum at Tk 2.37 billion

en.prothomalo.com

Teletalk receives new spectrum despite Tk 55b in outstanding dues

Syed Rifat Moslem
Dhaka
Published: 18 May 2026, 13: 44

State-owned mobile operator Teletalk Bangladesh Limited owes more than Tk 55 billion (5500 crore) to the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC) in spectrum charges, licence fees and other dues.

Despite failing to clear those liabilities for years, the operator is now set to receive an additional 10 MHz of spectrum.

At its latest commission meeting, the BTRC decided to allocate the spectrum from the 700 MHz band to Teletalk.

By contrast, private operators Robi Axiata Limited and Banglalink withdrew from the same spectrum auction after alleging that the prices were excessively high.

Industry insiders say regulators apply rules differently in Teletalk’s case. The operator has reportedly failed to pay for spectrum acquired through auctions, left licence fees unpaid, and ignored revenue-sharing obligations despite existing regulations. As if BTRC is an indulgent kin of Teletalk. The allocation of the valuable 700 MHz band spectrum now adds to that perception.

According to decisions taken at the BTRC’s latest commission meeting, regulators fixed the price of each megahertz of spectrum at Tk 2.37 billion (237 crore) for a 15-year term. As a result, the total value of the 10 MHz spectrum amounts to Tk 23.7 billion (2370 crore). However, Teletalk will not need to pay the amount directly. Instead, the government will treat the value as an “equity investment”

Spectrum worth Tk 23.7 billion

According to decisions taken at the BTRC’s latest commission meeting, regulators fixed the price of each megahertz of spectrum at Tk 2.37 billion (237 crore) for a 15-year term.

As a result, the total value of the 10 MHz spectrum amounts to Tk 23.7 billion (2370 crore).

However, Teletalk will not need to pay the amount directly. Instead, the government will treat the value as an “equity investment”.

In other words, authorities will convert the outstanding dues into a government ownership stake rather than treating them as repayable debt.

In addition, the government will also treat 10 per cent of the first instalment of the total charges — a prerequisite for spectrum allocation — as an “equity investment”.

The spectrum allocation will remain valid until the expiry of Teletalk’s existing cellular mobile service operator licence in 2039.

BTRC Chairman Emdad ul Bari told Prothom Alo, “The government has committed to converting Teletalk’s outstanding dues into equity investment. On that basis, we are allocating new spectrum to Teletalk.”

The government has committed to converting Teletalk’s outstanding dues into equity investment. On that basis, we are allocating new spectrum to Teletalk-------Emdad ul Bari, BTRC Chairman.

Only 5 MHz will remain available

Operators use spectrum from the 700 MHz band to provide broader network coverage across large areas. Telecommunications experts say the band is also highly effective at penetrating walls and delivering signals indoors.

Because operators can expand 5G services in rural and highway-adjacent areas with fewer towers, demand for this spectrum band remains high.

According to BTRC data, Bangladesh has a total of 45 MHz of spectrum in the 700 MHz band available for mobile services.

Maintaining competitive balance in the market is important. If sufficient spectrum does not remain available for other operators in future, a monopoly situation could emerge in the market. Ordinary consumers would ultimately suffer as a result--------BM Mainul Hossain, director of the Institute of Information Technology at the University of Dhaka

Of that amount, 20 MHz remains tied up in legal complications. The BTRC auctioned the remaining 25 MHz in January this year.

Regulators fixed the price at Tk 2.37 billion (237 crore) per megahertz. Robi and Banglalink declined to participate in the auction because of the high cost.

As the sole bidder, Grameenphone secured 10 MHz of spectrum. Following the latest allocation of another 10 MHz to Teletalk, only 5 MHz now remains available for the other two operators.

Concerns over the risk of monopoly
Experts said that the move could disrupt competitive balance in the telecommunications market.

BM Mainul Hossain, director of the Institute of Information Technology at the University of Dhaka, told Prothom Alo, “Maintaining competitive balance in the market is important. If sufficient spectrum does not remain available for other operators in future, a monopoly situation could emerge in the market. Ordinary consumers would ultimately suffer as a result.”

The BTRC states that Teletalk currently has just over 6.8 million (68 lakh) subscribers. Based on that figure, the operator holds approximately 0.81 MHz of spectrum for every 100,000 subscribers. By comparison, the corresponding ratio stands at 0.16 for Grameenphone, 0.22 for Robi Axiata Limited and 0.21 for Banglalink. In other words, relative to its subscriber base, Teletalk possesses several times more spectrum than the other operators.

He added, “As a state-owned institution, Teletalk may require government support. However, authorities should first have evaluated how effectively the company utilised previously allocated spectrum and what improvements resulted from it before making a new decision. Allocating additional spectrum without ensuring the effectiveness of earlier allocations raises questions about the justification for the move.”

Technology policy consultant Abu Nazam Md Tanveer Hossain also expressed similar concerns.

He said Teletalk already holds a significantly larger amount of spectrum relative to its subscriber base compared with private operators.

Therefore, he argued that authorities must ensure transparent planning and accountability before granting further allocations; otherwise, the telecommunications sector could face long-term harm.

Despite more spectrum, Teletalk lags behind in service
Teletalk Bangladesh Limited began operations in 2005. At the time, private mobile operators charged high call rates, which led to long queues of customers seeking to purchase Teletalk SIM cards.

However, over time, the state-owned operator fell behind in market competition.

According to data from the Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC), Teletalk currently holds a total of 55.2 MHz of spectrum across the 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2100 MHz and 2300 MHz bands.

Although the operator purchased 30 MHz of spectrum in the 2300 MHz band in 2022, it has yet to begin using that spectrum.

The BTRC states that Teletalk currently has just over 6.8 million (68 lakh) subscribers. Based on that figure, the operator holds approximately 0.81 MHz of spectrum for every 100,000 subscribers.

By comparison, the corresponding ratio stands at 0.16 for Grameenphone, 0.22 for Robi Axiata Limited and 0.21 for Banglalink.

In other words, relative to its subscriber base, Teletalk possesses several times more spectrum than the other operators.

Industry insiders say that, despite this advantage, Teletalk remains far behind private operators in network coverage, subscriber numbers and revenue generation.

Among the country’s mobile operators, Grameenphone and Robi consistently generate profits. Banglalink does not publicly disclose its financial statements. Teletalk, however, has continued to incur losses year after year.

In its published board report for the 2023–24 financial year, the operator stated that it incurred losses amounting to Tk 1.8 billion (180 crore) during that period.

Responding in writing to a question from Prothom Alo, Teletalk official Md Golam Morshed said, “The new spectrum should not be viewed solely as a commercial asset. It is being considered a strategic and competitive investment for the development of the country’s state telecommunications infrastructure.”

Golam Morshed further stated, “The government’s treatment of the new spectrum as an ‘equity investment’ may be regarded as a long-term initiative to strengthen the national telecommunications infrastructure.”​